企画展 いま、「女性」はどう生きるか ―キャリア・結婚・装い・命―

2International Comparison on Pregnancy and Childbirth

Many differences exist in pregnancy and childbirth across the globe!
What about the ways of childbirth?

Choices about the types of delivery methods, how long to stay in the hospital;
birth-related choices vary from one country to another.
Let us take a look at those differences in respective countries.

Germany
Emphasis on “kangaroo care” where mother and child interact with each other

Freestyle natural delivery, in which the mother can deliver in any position she likes, is the most common. Painless delivery comprises approximately 20-30% of all deliveries. Kangaroo care, in which the baby is placed on the mother's breast immediately after delivery with the umbilical cord still attached, is emphasized by many hospitals for its benefits to the mother and child. The hospital stay is two to three days for a spontaneous delivery and four days for a cesarean section. A midwife (“Hebamme” in German) provides postpartum home visits, the cost of which is covered by public insurance for up to eight weeks after delivery.

Japan
Natural delivery* is common and is characterized by several days of hospitalization.

There are more births with relatively little medical intervention than in other highly developed countries. More than 99% of deliveries occur in medical facilities, with small clinics accounting for just under half of all deliveries. For the first delivery, the mother stays in the hospital for approximately five to six days, and for subsequent deliveries, for approximately four to five days before returning home or to her parent's home. In many cases, midwives provide lactation and childcare guidance during hospitalization. As per the term “Satogaeri shussan” (giving birth at one’s parents’ home), assistance from her mother (or her grandmother) during the pregnancy and postpartum period is a feature that is not common in other countries.

  • Natural delivery is explained in various ways, but in this exhibition, it is defined as a method of delivery in which the baby is delivered through the birth canal via labor pain.

The United States of America
More than half of the deliveries are painless. The delivery cost varies depending on the insurance policy held by the mother.

More than half of the women in the United States choose painless delivery, in which anesthesia is used to alleviate the pain of labor. If both mother and child are in good health after delivery, the mother is discharged from the hospital within 24 hours, usually around two days after delivery. Generally, obstetric examinations are performed in the doctor’s office, and delivery takes place at a hospital affiliated with doctors or midwives. During the short postpartum stay in the hospital, all medical examinations of the mother and child as well as guidance on the care of the baby after discharge from the hospital are provided.
In the United States, coverage of maternity expenses varies depending on the type of insurance.

People’s Republic of China
More than half of all deliveries are performed by cesarean sections, in which the baby is removed surgically. What are the reasons?

More than half of all deliveries are performed via cesarean section, in which the baby is surgically removed. Women choose cesarean section owing to a belief that a cesarean baby is smart and can be delivered on an auspicious day, and medical factors, such as shorter time as well as a choice recommended by hospitals as it requires a higher cost than a natural delivery. In 2016, the nearly 40-year-old "one-child policy" was abolished, but the total fertility rate in 2020 was 1.3, about the same as in Japan. Furthermore, men take 10 to 15 days of maternity leave.

Republic of Korea
Postpartum care centers (“san-hu-jo-ri-won” in Korean) provide extensive care for postpartum mothers.

The most common type of delivery is spontaneous, but cesarean sections account for approximately 40% of all deliveries. Parturition often takes place in a hospital, and nowadays it is common for the mother to spend about two weeks in a “postpartum care center” that provides care for the mother. The postpartum care center is a separate room for mothers and children, and mothers receive extensive care including a tailored postpartum diet, yoga, and breastfeeding massage. The number of postpartum care centers now exceeds that of antenatal clinics.

The United Kingdom
Delivery is provided free. Is it normal to leave the hospital immediately after delivery?

Under the National Health Service (NHS), a state-run healthcare system, all medical examinations during pregnancy, delivery, and hospitalization are free of charge. When a woman finds out that she is pregnant, she contacts her family doctor to confirm the expected delivery date. Thereafter, a midwife, in cooperation with the doctor, provides health guidance, delivery, and support up to 28 days postpartum. Approximately 60% of deliveries are painless, usually delivered in the hospital, and mothers are discharged on the same day or the next day. The day following the discharge, the midwife visits the mother at home to provide care for her.

Birth options vary as per the situation in each country.

In each country, differences exist in delivery options, such as natural spontaneous delivery, painless delivery, and cesarean section, as well as in prenatal care checkups, length of hospital stay, and postpartum care. The importance of these factors varies according to cultural and social backgrounds. It may be hypothesized that a woman’s choices regarding pregnancy and birth depend largely on the environment. Let us consider the delivery methods, the support needed, and essential means that bring peace of mind to the woman, her baby, and her family.

What is the percentage of painless deliveries in each country?

Painless delivery, in which anesthesia is used to relieve pain during labor.
How many painless deliveries are performed worldwide?

In many countries, the first choice for painless delivery is "epidural analgesia," a method that only provides pain relief in the lower part of the body. The labor epidural analgesia rate in Japan has gradually increased to 6.1% in 2016. The United States and France have the highest number of pregnant women undergoing epidural analgesia during labor. The overall epidural delivery rate in the United States was 73.1%, but the rate varied from 36.6% to 80.1%. In France, the epidural painless delivery rate increased from 4% in 1981 to 82.2% in 2016.

Other North American and European countries, such as Canada (57.8%), the United Kingdom (60%), Sweden (66.1%), Finland (89%), and Belgium (68%), also commonly use epidural anesthesia.
On the other hand, Italy (20%), Germany (20-30%), and Greece (20%) have low epidural painless delivery rates, suggesting that the situation varies greatly from one country to another, even in Europe and North America.

the percentage of painless deliveries in each country

C-section deliveries are increasing
in Japan!
The future of childbirth and C-Sections

Cesarean section deliveries are increasing worldwide.
We should also be alarmed for cesarean sections conducted under non-medical reasons.

A cesarean section is a surgical procedure in which an incision is made in the abdomen and uterus to remove the baby. It is performed to save the lives of the mother and child when natural spontaneous delivery is difficult to perform. Deliveries via cesarean section are on the rise worldwide; the rate in Japan has increased approximately 1.8 times over the past 30 years and now accounts for more than 20% of total deliveries. According to a survey of 154 countries worldwide, the global average is 21.1% as of 2018 but is projected to rise to 28.5% by 2030.

The reasons for this increase vary. While the increase in high-risk delivery, such as late childbearing may be a reason, it is done as a precautionary "just in case" measure in some situations, such as prevention of nosocomial transmission of COVID-19, and a lack of medical supply systems. Surgery is both physically and mentally demanding. There are growing calls worldwide for caution when opting for a cesarean section to protect the mother and child’s health.

  • Written by Fukuzawa, Rieko

The Current Status and Future of C-Sections

The number of implementing facilities is increasing.
What is non-invasive prenatal testing?

During pregnancy, prenatal testing is a screening test used to determine whether the baby has a disease.

Prenatal screening is performed at one's own expense during pregnancy, and only by those who wish to have the test done. There are a variety of tests available, but the best known is non-invasive prenatal testing (NIPT), which tests for diseases that differ in the number of chromosomes. The number of facilities offering this test has been on the rise.

If the fetus is found to have a chromosomal disorder beforehand, the patient can be transferred to a big hospital with a specialist to prepare for safer delivery. However, counseling before and after the test is important, as the results may lead to possible termination of pregnancy. Japan has a system of certifying facilities with a counseling system as “official laboratories”; however, an increasing number of unofficial facilities do not obtain certification and conduct tests without sufficient explanation.

NIPT

Inspects blood from pregnant women and tests chromosomes with DNA derived from the fetus.

NIPT is a method for analyzing fragments of fetal deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) circulating in the blood of pregnant women. The test was launched in Japan in 2013 and has attracted attention, for it can be performed only by taking a blood sample from the mother. Therefore, there is no risk of miscarriage, and false positives are rare. However, this test is not a definitive diagnosis but rather a test to determine if there is a high possibility of chromosomal disease. If the possibility is considered high, the patient will consider the option of undergoing an amniotic fluid test in which a needle is inserted into the abdomen to collect the amniotic fluid. The amniotic fluid test is definitive; however, there is a 0.3% risk of miscarriage.

  • False Positive= Judging a person as “positive” (having a disease) when in fact the fetus does not have a disease.

The Annual Transition in the Number of Certified NIPT Facilities

  • Nihon Sanfujinka Gakkai Dai 4 kai NIPT tou no shusseimae kensa ni kansuru senmon iinkai (The 4th Expert Committee on NIPT and Other Prenatal Tests, Japan Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology ), January 15,2021
    https://www.mhlw.go.jp/content/11908000/000754902.pdf
  • Nihon Igakkai. Shusseimae kensa ninshou seido tou unn-ei iinkai (Steering Committee for Prenatal Testing and Certification System, The Japanese Association of Medical Sciences), June 16, 2022
  • Written by Kawai, Ran
  • Nihon Igakkai. Issho ni kanngaeyou, Onaka no Akachan no Kensa (Let us think about prenatal baby testing, The Japanese Association of Medical Sciences) https://jams-prenatal.jp/

NIPT from a Global Perspective

What rules are required for non-invasive prenatal testing?
This is an on-going discussion worldwide.

Many countries are developing legislation for prenatal testing, which have established pre- and post-testing consultation systems. They decide on which experts would provide consultations concerning questions on “when?, where?, how?, and which?” The answers to these questions are determined and decided according to the country's medical resources and culture.

However, in Japan, some opposed to prenatal testing, and the development of a system for pregnant women to consult about testing was delayed. Obstetricians and other academic societies, excluding the government, developed guidelines, but their influence was limited, causing non-certified facilities to mushroom. Only recently did the Japanese government move to establish a consultation system; resulting in a compilation of an expert committee report geared towards establishing such a system.

  • Written by Kawai, Ran
UK Italy Germany Sweden Japan*1
Legislation for prenatal testing ✖️ ✖️ ○ ○ ✖️
Guidelines for NIPT
(e.g., government agencies)
○ ○ ○ ✖️ ○
Guidelines for NIPT
(e.g., academic societies)
✖️ ✖️*2 ✖️*3 ○ ○
Public assistance ○ △ ✖️ ○ ✖️
Support system
for pregnant women.
○Support from private facilities and others NA ○Enactment of laws and counseling support for pregnant women NA △
  • ○ : Available
  • ✖️ : Non-available
  • △ : Under discussion
  1. Data for Japan comes from the year 2022
  2. Statement released by academic society
  3. Statement released by the German Society of Human Genetics
各国の事情によって法律やルール、相談体制が違う
  • Kousei roudou shou. Shusseimae kensa ni kansuru chousa kenkyuu jigyou houkokusho ichibu kaihen (Report on Research and Study Project on Prenatal Testing partially modified from 2020, Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare)
    Kousei roudou shou. NIPT tou no shusseimae kensa ni kansuru senmon iinkai (Expert Committee on NIPT and Other Prenatal Tests, Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare)
    https://www.mhlw.go.jp/stf/shingi/other-kodomo_145015_00008.html

Importance of genetic counseling
in delivery

Whether to undergo prenatal testing depends on the couple’s decision, but they need supporters.

Although the NIPT is a seemingly simple test, it is necessary to understand its limitations. If the results show a high probability of a fetus having a disease, the parents may experience great stress. Therefore, prenatal testing requires the presence of a specialist who can support the patient.

Certified NIPT facilities have various specialists, such as medical geneticists, geneticist counselors, and pediatricians, to provide genetic counseling. Smaller certified facilities also collaborate with such facilities. The patient is informed of the disease being investigated, the welfare services available, and the kind of life they would have after the birth of the child.

Comments on Genetic Counseling

Voices calling for needs of genetic counseling
  • Nihon Sanfujinka Gakkai Dai 4 kai NIPT tou no shusseimae kensa ni kansuru senmon iinkai (The 4th Expert Committee on NIPT and Other Prenatal Tests, Japan Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology ), January 15,2021
    https://www.mhlw.go.jp/content/11908000/000754902.pdf
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