企画展 いま、「女性」はどう生きるか ―キャリア・結婚・装い・命―

Chapter 1 Are you familiar with the practice of child marriage?

Child marriage is defined as,
“A marriage between a child couple under the age of 18.”

Child marriage is a formal or an informal union in which, either or both individuals are under 18—in most cases, it is the girl who is by definition a child.

In 1962, the United Nation convention set 15 as the minimum age for marriage; in 1979, it was raised to 18. Today, UNICEF defines child marriage as one in which at least one of the two individuals is under 18.

The number of girls who marry at a young age is estimated at 12 million per year, and it is said that roughly one in every five girls is going to get married before turning 18.

POINT
  • UNICEF defines child marriage as “(a) Any formal marriage or informal union between a child under the age of 18 and another child or adult.”
  • Eliminating child marriage is one of the targets of the SDGs.
One in every five girls is married before the age of 18.

Although the number of child marriages decreased worldwide in 2019, the practice still remains prevalent in many regions.
One of the targets under the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is to eliminate child marriage by 2030. However, it is said that to achieve this goal, efforts to end child marriage must be in place at a pace 12 times faster than in the last decade.

POINT
  • UNICEF defines child marriage as “(a) Any formal marriage or informal union between a child under the age of 18 and another child or adult.”
  • Eliminating child marriage is one of the targets of the SDGs.

What is the legal age to marry in each country?

In many countries, marriage is possible when men and women celebrate their adult coming of age by law. Some countries allow individuals to marry between the ages of 12 to 17— that is, before they reach adulthood—and some countries have different marriageable ages for men and women, with the latter being allowed to marry at an age that is 1 to 3 years younger than that of the former.

This includes Japan, where boys are allowed to marry at 18 and girls at 16. There is no rationale behind these different marriageable ages, and Japan has been criticized internationally for this. From April 2022, the marriageable age for both genders will be 18, following the revision of the Civil Code.

POINT
  • Many countries allow children to get married before they reach adulthood.
  • It is difficult to prohibit child marriage by law alone.

Even if the legal age to marry is the same as the age when one becomes an adult, many countries have exceptions that allow marriage before adulthood. It is either with parental consent or to fulfill religious requirements. Thus, it is still difficult to prevent child marriage by law alone.

POINT
  • Many countries allow children to get married before they reach adulthood.
  • It is difficult to prohibit child marriage by law alone.

Child marriage-where is it taking place?

Of all the girls and women worldwide who have experienced child marriage, 42% live in South Asia, 26% in East Asia and the Pacific, and 17% in Africa.

Country-wise, the Republic of Chad and the Republic of Niger have the highest rate of child marriage between the ages of 15-18 (30% and 76% respectively). Child marriage is a common problem facing developing countries—it is more common in rural areas than in urban ones as it is largely related to family poverty. Marrying off a young daughter means one less mouth to feed.

POINT
  • Child marriage is common mostly in developing countries due to poverty.

Countries with a high rate of child marriage (from UNICEF “State of the World’s Children 2019”)

Of the 10 countries with the highest rate of child marriage under the age of 18, 8 are in Africa. The regions where child marriage is common are shifting from South Asian together with the to sub-Saharan Africa. The main reasons behind are, delay in dealing with this issue, population increase.

POINT
  • Child marriage is common mostly in developing countries due to poverty.

Women who have experienced child marriage

Those who experience child marriage are placed under diverse circumstances and backgrounds. Some have experienced the pain of forced marriage, while others have faced unreasonable marriages and are trying to become independent. Here are the episodes of four women who have experienced child marriage.
Sylvia, 19, South Sudan
Forced to marry at the age of 14
“Victim of physical abuse on her back caused by her alcoholic husband”

Sylvia suffered from hunger during the South Sudan war, and married a young man who pretended to be rich. Her mother told her that marriage was her only option since she was already pregnant. However, she later discovered that the man was not wealthy. He was an alcoholic who started to abuse her physically.

As the war escalated, Sylvia escaped from her husband with her daughter to her mother living in a refugee camp in Uganda. However, once her husband found where she was, he tried to force her to return home. When she refused, he hurt her severely causing back injuries. Even today, she suffers from the intense pain, and needs to wear a corset to support her back.

  • Photo credit: Plan International / Source: Plan International
Niger, 17 / Sharina, 14, Bangladesh
“The only way to refuse marriage is committing suicide.”

Sharina’s father and Niger’s grandfather decided their marriage. In their society, it is the parents duty to marry their children because it benefits the children and their families. While the groom gets to choose his own marriage, the bride cannot protest or go against her parents. In other words, it is difficult to refuse a marriage proposal and suicide seems like the only way out. Children get almost no opportunity to make their own life decisions.

Sangeetha, 19, India
“My family started talking about my marriage when I was 15. I cried and protested every day.”

Sangeetha lives in a small, remote village, earning a meager livelihood through agriculture. Her father first mentioned her marriage when she was 15. She cried every day, and refused to go ahead with it. Her father gave up then. Recently, however, he is resuming his efforts to get her married. Sangeetha wants to become a nurse and build her own career—she explained this to her father, and fortunately, he understood. However, there is no doubt that Sangeetha will continue to face the pressure to marry from her family and society.

  • Photo credit: Plan International / Source: Plan International
Aisha, 15, Republic of Cameroon
“I want to choose my husband on my own after I become financially independent.”

Aisha lives in a refugee camp. Her father, considering the financial aspect, had arranged her marriage, but her mother did not want her to experience the same pain she had been through when she had to marry at the age of 12. She therefore sought help from the local office of Plan International, an NGO established to protect children’s rights.
Aisha then had a discussion with her father, and he agreed to register her for vocational training instead of getting her married. Aisha says that when she becomes financially independent, she wants to choose her husband herself.

  • Photo credit: Plan International / Source: Plan International

Visual learning through video clips: The reality of child marriage.

13歳の花嫁（ニジェール）
女の子の価値はヤギ1頭分？（ナイジェリア）
妹はたった11歳で妊娠しました ～法律を変える女の子たち（マラウイ）
結婚を拒んだシンタイェフ（エチオピア）
13歳の花嫁
13歳の花嫁
ニジェール
女の子の価値はヤギ1頭分？
女の子の価値はヤギ1頭分？
ナイジェリア
妹はたった11歳で妊娠しました ～法律を変える女の子たち
妹はたった11歳で妊娠しました ～法律を変える女の子たち
マラウイ
結婚を拒んだシンタイェフ
結婚を拒んだシンタイェフ
エチオピア
  • 映像提供：国際NGOプラン・インターナショナル

A practice that takes away children’s future

Marriage at an early age has various negative impacts, both physically and mentally, on girls. What are those risks?
Deprived of educational opportunities

Girls are often forced to take on the household chores, which increases their risk of dropping out of school. Lacking access to satisfactory education, they often lose their opportunity to choose a life-style and income they want.

A life with no hope of becoming independent
Smila, 17

She was forced to marry at the age of 10, but her husband died from an illness. Later, her husband’s family did not care for her and her children’s wellbeing so she had to raise them on her own without a home, livestock or anything else. Because she could not go to school, she does not have a job. A girl, if married at a very young age, has limited ways to survive if her husband dies, and her life may come to a stand-still there.

Dangers of Pregnancy and childbirth

Pregnancy and childbirth can cause serious physical harm to the girl mother and her (unborn) child, as the body of girls is not fully developed, and girls are likely to experience “premature pregnancy and childbirth”. There is a risk to the girl's health and life.

Both mother and child in poor health
Sabita, 17

Her family was poor, and her father became ill. To reduce her family’s burden, she was forced to marry at the age of 14. She now has an eight-month-old son, but because she was quite sick during her pregnancy, the baby is weak. Since marriage, her life has been miserable.

Spousal violence and abuse

In many cases, young wives are not allowed to speak up. In addition, they also face higher risk of being abused by their husbands and in-laws.

Physical abuse by her husband has become a normal part of her life
Lada, 27

She got married at a young age. Her husband was violent to her. However, such violence is considered usual in this society, and therefore, Lada thought that getting beaten by one’s husband was normal too. However, now, she knows that violence is wrong and that women have rights too—she is making effort to pass on this knowledge to other women.

Why child marriage has prevailed

Historically, child marriages were allowed and accepted as normal by society. There are many reasons why child marriage is still prevalent, but we can categorize them into five main ones (see the right chart).

In the first place, it is a common problem among developing countries to rely on a weak law enforcement. Child marriage is considered to have benefits for the families of both the bride and groom. The girl’s family can reduce their household expenses, and younger the girl, lower the marriage expenditure; furthermore, in unsafe regions, child marriage is considered a way to protect daughters from abuse and violence. As far as the boy’s family is concerned, they gain a family member who is able to bear a child and is obedient to them.

Reason･1
What do we need to do to eliminate child marriage?

Since India introduced “The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act” in 2006, the number of child marriages has decreased significantly. However, it is not easy to change long-standing social norms. Education, labor participation, and changes in gender awareness are effective in eliminating child marriage. When women are educated and equipped with skills, they have access to employment opportunities and can contribute financially to their households. If women are empowered, the need to rush marriages would seem unnecessary.

Reason･2
The need to address gender inequality

The fundamental reason why child marriages are celebrated is largely rooted gender inequality – female members of the family are considered to be in need of protection from the male members ; women have fewer chances to speak up. They are expected to be obedient without questioning.

Reason･3
Japanese women are not an exception either.

Gender inequality, which is at the root of child marriage, is entrenched in Japanese society as well. Unequal employment opportunities, wage disparity between men and women, the belief that housework and childcare are a woman’s responsibility, and so on, show the gender gaps prevalent in Japanese society. While the problem of child marriage may seem to be an issue of great concern occurring in countries outside of Japan, the responsible cause to this problem is common across our society too.

  • References : Japan Committee for UNICEF. February 12, 2019. “Child Marriage. Child Brides, about 12 Million People a Year. One in Five Women in the World has Experienced Child Marriage. UNICEF, Investing in Education, Appeal for a Change in the Awareness of Local Communities.”
    https://www.unicef.or.jp/news/2019/0019.html
  • References : Heath, Rachel and Ahmed Mushfiq Mobarak. 2015. "Manufacturing Growth and the Lives of Bangladesh Women."
    Journal of Development Economics 115:1–15.
  • References : Jensen Jensen, Robert. 2012. "Do Labor Market Opportunities Affect Young Women’s Work and Family Decisions?
    Experimental Evidence from India." Quarterly Journal of Economics 127(2):753–792.
  • References : Momoe Makino. February 2020. “Research of Population Council and Child Marriage.” “IDE Square – Overseas Researchers Report” pp.1–8. Institute of Developing Economies, Japan External Trade Organization (IDE – JETRO).
    https://www.ide.go.jp/Japanese/IDEsquare/Overseas/2020/ISQ202030_003.html
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